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Effects of Three Kinds of Kombucha on the Surface of Composite Resin for Dental Restoration
J Dent Hyg Sci 2024;24:289-98
Published online December 31, 2024;  https://doi.org/10.17135/jdhs.2024.24.4.289
© 2024 Korean Society of Dental Hygiene Science.

Ye-Won Song* , Sun-Young Park* , Ye-Eun Kim , Hye-Won Lee , Jung-Yeon Jae , Hyeon-Ji Shim , Hee-Jung Lim , Im-Hee Jung , and Do-Seon Lim

Department of Dental Hygiene, College of Health Science, Eulji University, Seongnam 13135, Korea
Correspondence to: Do-Seon Lim, https://orcid.org/0000-0003-4602-3323
Department of Dental Hygiene, College of Health Science, Eulji University, 553 Sanseong-daero, Sujeong-gu, Seongnam 13135, Korea
Tel: +82-31-740-7229, Fax: +82-31-740-7352, E-mail: idsun@eulji.ac.kr
*These authors contributed equally to this work.
Received September 6, 2024; Revised October 18, 2024; Accepted October 25, 2024.
This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution Non-Commercial License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0) which permits unrestricted non-commercial use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.
Abstract
Background: This study aimed to evaluate the effects of kombucha on the surface of composite resins and to examine the degradation-inhibiting effect of adding calcium to kombucha.
Methods: Six experimental groups were established, with three types of liquid kombucha: one with 3% added calcium, carbonated water as a positive control, and mineral water as a negative control. The pH and titratable acidity values of the experimental groups were measured. The samples were filled with condensed composite resin and placed in the experimental drinks for 5, 15, 30, and 60 minutes. The Vickers microhardness of the surface was measured before and after immersion, and the changes were compared.
Results: The pH values of the experimental group were I’m alive (2.87±0.02), Hollys (2.95±0.01), Ediya (2.99±0.01), I’m alive +3% Ca (4.09±0.01), carbonated water (4.66±0.01), and mineral water (7.67±0.02). I’m alive (–12.35) showed the largest reduction in surface hardness, followed by Hollys (–9.78), carbonated water (–7.97), I’m alive +3% Ca (–7.82), Ediya (–7.60), and mineral water (–1.56). In the Vickers microhardness measurements, all experimental groups, except for the mineral water group, showed significant differences (p<0.05). The scanning electron microscope results showed that the experimental group and positive control had rough surfaces and micropores.
Conclusion: The surface hardness was significantly reduced in all experimental groups except for water. In particular, in the case of kombucha with low pH, the reduction rate increased, weakening the physical properties of the material. In addition, the reduction rate of surface hardness was lower in kombucha with added calcium, and it is believed that drinking kombucha containing calcium can minimize the erosion of dental materials.
Keywords : Calcium, Composite resins, Kombucha, Metabolism, Vickers microhardness
Introduction

1. Background

Since the recent outbreak of coronavirus disease (COVID-19), interest in health and dieting among the public has increased because of lifestyle changes. Statistics in Korea have reported that the consumption of foods and supplements aimed at boosting individual immunity has increased1). A survey conducted by the Korea Agro-Fisheries & Food Trade Corporation (KATI) introduced six foods that enhance immunity, as maintaining health has become a priority owing to the COVID-19 virus. Among these, the consumption of fermented foods, such as kimchi, kombucha, and yogurt, saw a significant surge, growing by 149% in 2020 compared compared to 20192). Kombucha, in particular, is increasingly recognized globally as a healthy alternative to sugar-laden carbonated drinks such as cola and soda. According to an overseas survey by KATI, the kombucha market in the United States and Korea is steadily expanding3).

Kombucha is a healthy carbonated beverage made by fermenting sugar in water infused with green or black tea leaves using a symbiotic culture of bacteria and yeast (SCOBY). It is known for its potential anticancer, anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, antiaging, and detoxification4). Depending on the type of tea leaves used, the microbial culture involved, and fermentation conditions, various types of kombucha products can be produced5). Previous studies have shown that kombucha has an acidic pH range of 7.0 and 2.06). Ko et al.7) classified fermented beverages such as lactic acid-fermented milk as acidic drinks. Foods with a pH concentration of 5.5 or below, particularly those with a pH of 4.0, are known to cause dental erosion by dissolving tooth enamel. Numerous studies have reported the impact of low-pH beverages such as energy-, carbonated-, and hangover-relief drinks on teeth and composite resin8-11). Based on these findings, kombucha is also likely to cause dental erosion, including the dissolution of tooth enamel.

Dental erosion refers to the irreversible loss of hard dental tissue due to the chemical action of acids without bacterial involvement. It is distinguished from dental caries, which results from the demineralization of hard dental tissue caused by acids produced by oral bacteria. Dental erosion can be categorized into intrinsic and extrinsic factors. Extrinsic factors include consuming acidic foods or drinks, exposure to acidic gases or dust in the workplace, and using low-pH medications or oral rinses. Among these, acidic beverages have been reported to be one of the main causes of dental erosion12), leading to a range of studies focused on prevention13-16). Multiple studies have demonstrated fluoride and calcium as key substances that inhibit erosion. Kim et al.13) found that applying fluoride to early carious teeth and adding calcium to fermented drinks, specifically using a combination of 0.2% fluoride and 0.5% calcium, effectively prevented dental erosion. In a study by Seon et al.14), a comparison of acidic drinks containing fluoride revealed that fluoride did not significantly inhibit erosion in beverages with low pH. Another study by Kim et al.17) confirmed that dental erosion could be prevented by adding calcium to lactic acid-fermented milk and applying fluoride before exposure to the beverage. Additionally, Kim et al.15) showed that increasing the calcium concentration in lactic acid-fermented milk enhanced its ability to prevent dental erosion, reporting that even small amounts of calcium in a beverage significantly reduced erosion compared to drinks without added calcium. Furthermore, an international study by West et al.18) identified calcium lactate as a substance that can be safely added to beverages to inhibit dental erosion, while Hara and Zero19) demonstrated that exposing teeth to calcium-containing beverages reduced enamel demineralization compared to beverages without calcium.

Composite resin is one of the materials used for dental restorations and is valued for its excellent bonding ability to tooth structures and high mechanical strength. It is easy to handle and offers superior aesthetics, making it widely used in various clinical fields17). However, similar to natural teeth, composite resins have been reported to be significantly affected by changes in the oral environment. Han et al.20) identified that low-pH acidic beverages are critical factors affecting the durability and lifespan of resin restorations. Geurtsen et al.21) noted that the composite resin is more influenced by the liquid environment than by the pH or composition of the solution in which it is immersed. They also reported that, the action of salivary esterases contributed to the weakening of the resin surface. Various studies have shown that composite resins are highly susceptible to the oral environment, along with the teeth. In particular, an acidic oral environment not only leads to tooth erosion but also reduces the durability and strength of the composite resin, increasing the likelihood of restoration failure.

2. Objectives

This study aimed to evaluate the effects of kombucha on the surface of composite resins and to examine the degradation-inhibiting effect of adding calcium to kombucha. By doing so, this study seeks to provide foundational data on effective ways to consume kombucha while minimizing the potential harm to dental materials.

Materials and Methods

1. Material

1) Experimental drink

In this study, three types of liquid kombucha currently sold in bottles in Korea were selected based on sales volume: I’m alive, Ediya, and Hollys. Carbonated water was used as the positive control, whereas mineral water was used as the negative control (Table 1). To ensure consistent temperature conditions for pH measurements, all experimental materials were left at room temperature for 6 hours before use.

Details of Test Groups Used in the Experiment

Group Brand name Ingredient Manufacture
Mineral water (negative control) Jeju Samdasoo Natural mineral water Jeju Special Self-Governing Province Development Corporation, Jeju, Korea
Carbonated water (positive control) Trevi Purified water, carbon dioxide Lotte Chilsung Beverage Co., Anseong, Korea
Ediya kombucha green grape & lemon Ediya Purified water, organic sugar cane sugar, organic kombu fermented vinegar (purified water, organic sugar cane sugar, organic green tea [Korea], organic black tea [Korea], yeast), green grape lemon mate 4% (lemon mate base 30% [purified water, leached tea: Germany]), white grape concentrate (white grape: Argentina), lemon concentrate (lemon: Israel), organic green tea (Korea), organic black tea (Korea), carbon dioxide, yeast Core Bio Co., Iksan, Korea
Hollys kombucha shine muscat Hollys Purified water, organic sugar cane sugar, shine muscat lemongrass (high-fructose corn syrup, lemongrass tea extract [lemongrass: Thailand]), sugar, muscat grape juice concentrate (Chile), white grape juice (Argentina), shine musket extract (shine musket: Korea), organic gelato oligosaccharide, organic green tea (Korea), organic black tea, carbon dioxide, yeast Core Bio Co., Iksan, Korea
I’m alive kombucha ginger lemon I’m alive Kombucha undiluted solution 95.64% (organic sugar cane sugar 7.5%, organic green tea [Korea] 0.23%, organic black tea [Korea] 0.17%, organic kombu fermented vinegar 0.001%), organic ginger juice (Netherlands)/organic ginger, organic concentrated lemon juice, organic fructose oligosaccharide, organic lemon concentrate (Türkiye), carbon dioxide Core Bio Co., Iksan, Korea
I’m alive kombucha ginger lemon +3% Ca


2) Composite resin

In this study, we selected a condensable composite resin (3M FILTEK Z350 XT; 3M ESPE, St. Paul, MN, USA), which is commonly used in dental clinics. A light-curing device (DTE LUX E PLUS; Guilin Woodpecker Medical Instrument, Guangxi, China) was used to polymerize the composite resin.

3) Calcium lactate

Calcium lactate (Samin Chemical Co., Siheung, Korea) was selected as the calcium additive for liquid kombucha. To assess the effect of calcium-enriched kombucha on the surface of the composite resin, the concentration of calcium lactate to be added was determined based on studies by Kim et al.22) and Lee et al.16). A concentration of 3% which was found to be the most effective in inhibiting dental erosion, was selected. Among the three liquid kombuchas, 3% calcium lactate was added to live kombucha, which had the lowest pH value, to create the experimental group.

2. Study design

1) Measurement of pH and titratable acidity

The pH of the experimental materials was measured using a pH meter (S20K; Mettler-Toledo, Greifensee, Switzerland). Before measurement, the electrode was calibrated with standard buffer solutions of pH 4.0, 7.0, and 9.0. The electrodes were rinsed with distilled water prior to each measurement. For the group treated with 3% calcium lactate, the solution was stirred at 200 rpm for over an hour to ensure the complete dissolution of calcium before measurement.

The titratable acidity was determined by dispensing 50 ml of the experimental material into separate containers. Then, 1 M NaOH was added to each sample until the pH reached 5.5 and 7.0, and the amount of NaOH added was recorded. The pH and titratable acidity measurements for all experimental groups were performed in triplicate, and the average values were calculated.

2) Specimen preparation

Using a 3D printer (Style NEO-A22C, CUBICON Inc., Seongnam, Korea), plastic structures (10×10×7 mm) with a hemispherical cavity (5.5 mm diameter) on the inner surface were printed. Subsequently, the cavities were filled with the composite resin, and a cover glass was pressed onto the filled resin to ensure a uniform surface. The resin was light-cured for 20 seconds at a height of 5 mm using a light-curing unit.

3) Surface Vickers microhardness measurement

The surface microhardness of the specimens was measured using a Vickers microhardness tester (MMT-X7B; Matsuzawa Co., Ltd, Akita, Japan). Four adjacent areas (top, bottom, left, and right) were measured under a load of 200 mg for 10 seconds for each specimen, and the average value was calculated. Subsequently, 60 specimens with surface Vickers microhardness values in the range of 58∼61 VHN were selected and distributed into six groups with ten specimens in each group.

4) Specimen immersion

The experimental and control groups were distributed into individual containers containing 50 ml of the respective solutions. Ten specimens were placed in each container. The immersion times were 5, 15, 30, and 60 minutes. After immersion, the specimens were retrieved, rinsed with distilled water for 30 seconds, and dried.

5) Surface Vickers microhardness measurement after immersion

After immersion, the Vickers microhardness of the specimen surfaces from the experimental and control groups was measured. Measurements were performed at the same locations as before immersion, adjacent to the areas (top, bottom, left, and right) of the initial measurement site. Average hardness values were calculated from these measurements.

6) Scanning electron microscope observation

Two specimens from each group (experimental and control) were randomly selected to examine the changes on the surface of the composite resin after immersion. The specimens were first dried using a critical point dryer (HCP-2; Hitachi, Tokyo, Japan). The dried specimens were mounted onto stubs using double-sided tape and coated with platinum via ion sputtering (E-1030; Hitachi, Tokyo, Japan). Finally, the specimens were observed under a scanning electron microscope (SEM) (S-4700; Hitachi, Tokyo, Japan) at 10 kV and a magnification of ×1,000.

3. Statistical analysis

Paired t-tests were used to compare the surface Vickers microhardness of the specimens before and after 60 minutes of immersion in each liquid kombucha group. One-way ANOVA was used to compare the differences in surface Vickers microhardness among the groups. To compare the differences in the surface Vickers microhardness across different immersion times within each group, repeated-measures ANOVA was conducted. Post hoc analysis was performed using Tukey’s test. All statistical analyses were conducted using IBM SPSS Statistics 29.0.1.0 software (IBM Corp., Armonk, NY, USA). The surface changes in the specimens before and after 60 minutes of immersion in different liquid kombuchas were observed and photographed using a SEM for comparison.

Results

1. Measurement of pH and titratable acidity

In this experiment, the pH of the experimental groups was lowest for I’m alive (2.87±0.02), followed by Hollys (2.95±0.01), Ediya (2.99±0.01), I’m alive +3% Ca (4.09±0.01), the positive control group, carbonated water (4.66±0.01), and the negative control group, mineral water (7.67±0.02). The titratable acidity of the experimental groups at pH 5.5 was lowest for carbonated water (0.38±0.03), followed by Hollys (3.93±0.07), Ediya (4.62±0.02), I’m alive +3% Ca (4.78±0.17), and I’m alive (5.35±0.34). At pH 7.0, the lowest titratable acidity was observed for carbonated water (1.71±0.09), followed by I’m alive +3% Ca (5.43±0.22), Hollys (5.48±0.08), Ediya (6.13±0.08), and I’m alive (6.84±0.31) (Table 2, p<0.05).

pH and Titratable Acidity of Test Groups

Group pH Titratable acidity (ph)
pH 5.5 pH 7.0
Mineral water 7.67±0.02 - -
Carbonated water 4.66±0.01 0.38±0.03 1.71±0.09
Ediya 2.99±0.01 4.62±0.02 6.13±0.08
Hollys 2.95±0.01 3.93±0.07 5.48±0.08
I’m alive 2.87±0.02 5.35±0.34 6.84±0.31
I’m alive +3% Ca 4.09±0.01 4.78±0.17 5.43±0.22

Values are presented as mean±standard deviation.



2. Change in surface Vickers microhardness of composite resin after immersion in kombucha

The measurement of the surface Vickers microhardness of the composite resin before and after immersion in kombucha revealed significant differences among the groups (Table 3, p<0.05). The difference in surface Vickers microhardness (ΔVHN) after 60 minutes of immersion was highest in the I’m alive group (–12.35), followed by Hollys (–9.78), carbonated water (–7.97), I’m alive with 3% calcium lactate (–7.82), Ediya (–7.60), and mineral water (–1.56), indicating the lowest change in surface Vickers microhardness for the mineral water group.

Vickers Microhardness Change on Packable Resin Surface after Treatment for 60 Minutes (n=10, unit: VHN)

Group Treatment (mean±standard deviation) t p VHN
Before (0 min) After (60 min)
Mineral water 60.49±1.25 58.92±1.26 3.716 0.005 –1.56
Carbonated water 60.17±0.94 52.19±1.84 13.889 <0.001 –7.97
Ediya 59.62±0.78 52.02±2.85 9.107 <0.001 –7.60
Hollys 59.89±1.16 50.10±3.28 9.571 <0.001 –9.78
I’m alive 59.77±1.18 47.41±3.95 11.654 <0.001 –12.35
I’m alive +3% Ca 60.02±0.89 52.19±3.60 7.482 <0.001 –7.82

Paired t-test.

The same letter indicates no significant difference by Turkey’s test at α=0.05.



There was also a significant difference in the surface Vickers microhardness changes based on the immersion time (p<0.05). A decreasing trend in the surface Vickers microhardness of the composite resin was observed with increasing immersion time for the positive control group (carbonated water) and the experimental groups compared to the negative control group (mineral water) (Table 4, p<0.05).

Vickers Microhardness Change on Packable Resin by Treatment Time (unit: VHN)

Group Treatment (min) p
Before 5 15 30 60
Mineral water 60.49±1.25 58.21±2.25 58.65±3.10 59.09±1.89 58.92±1.26 <0.001
Carbonated water 60.17±0.94 57.37±1.55 54.92±1.89 53.53±2.29 52.19±1.84 <0.001
Ediya 59.62±0.78 55.28±2.03 53.00±1.75 51.96±2.12 52.02±2.85 <0.001
Hollys 59.89±1.16 55.74±2.15 53.09±2.15 51.50±3.02 50.10±3.28 <0.001
I’m alive 59.77±1.18 52.94±3.40 51.31±4.02 49.39±3.94 47.41±3.95 <0.001
I’m alive +3% Ca 60.02±0.89 58.65±3.36 56.51±3.95 54.61±3.36 52.19±3.60 <0.001

Values are presented as mean±standard deviation.

One way ANOVA.

The same letter indicates no significant difference by Turkey’s test at α=0.05.



3. Observation of composite resin surface by SEM after immersion in kombucha

The results from observing the surface of composite resin using a SEM revealed that specimens treated with mineral water, the negative control group, exhibited almost no change in surface texture compared to the pre-immersion specimens, showing an overall smooth appearance. In contrast, the specimens treated with carbonated water (positive control group) displayed a slightly rougher surface overall. Additionally, the specimens treated with I’m alive, Ediya, and Hollys (the experimental groups) showed some variation, but rough surfaces with exposed composite resin particles were observed in certain areas. However, specimens treated with I’m alive +3% Ca exhibited a significant reduction in rough areas compared to those treated with I’m alive alone (Fig. 1).

Fig. 1. Scanning electron microscope image of composite resin surface before and 60 minutes after the treatment. (A) Before treatment, (B) mineral water, (C) carbonated water, (D) Ediya, (E) Hollys, (F) I’m alive, (G) I’m alive +3% Ca. All magnifications were ×1,000. Scale bar is 50.0 μm.
Discussion

1. Interpretation

Since the recent COVID-19 pandemic, there has been an increase in the consumption and demand for health supplements and nutritional products. Among these, kombucha, a fermented carbonated beverage, has gained attention for its reported health benefits, including reduced blood sugar levels, decreased blood cholesterol, antioxidant properties, and antimicrobial effects22). This has led to a steady increase in demand, both domestically and internationally.

Kombucha typically exhibits a low pH owing to carbonation produced during the fermentation process involving the key enzyme SCOBY. Previous studies have shown that kombucha (pH 2.5 demonstrated antimicrobial effects through disc diffusion tests, which were attributed to acetic acid produced during fermentation23). Numerous studies have examined the degradation of tooth surfaces and composite resin surfaces by low-pH beverages such as carbonated drinks, energy drinks, and hangover remedies, all of which indicate that these beverages can cause dental erosion9-11).

This study aimed to measure the pH and titratable acidity of kombucha and observe changes in the surface of a composite resin after immersion in kombucha.

2. Key results and comparison with previous studies

First, the pH measurements of the three kombucha types revealed that the average pH was lowest for I’m alive (2.87±0.02), followed by Hollys (2.95±0.01) and Ediya (2.99±0.01). All three kombucha types had a pH <4.0, indicating low pH levels. Rytömaa et al.8) reported that the critical pH for enamel dissolution is below 5.5, with a higher risk of erosion at pH levels below 4.0. This confirms that the three kombucha types tested had a high erosion risk.

Furthermore, the addition of calcium lactate to I’m alive kombucha resulted in a pH increase from 2.87 (±0.02) to 4.09 (±0.01), indicating that the addition of calcium increases the pH. In addition to pH, titratable acidity was measured to evaluate the buffering capacity of the beverages. The results showed that I’m alive, with the lowest initial pH, and required the most NaOH to reach pH 5.0 and 7.0. This finding is consistent with previous research suggesting that beverages with higher titratable acidity maintain an acidic oral environment for longer periods, increasing the risk of erosion24).

The titratable acidity was expected to decrease as the calcium content increased. However, in this experiment, the group with calcium lactate showed the second-highest titratable acidity at pH 5.5. This result could be explained by the possibility that the calcium mineral content interfered with the dilution of NaOH in the beverage, as suggested by Kim et al.15) and Lee et al.16). Additionally, in acidic beverages with added calcium, pH was more closely related to erosion than titratable acidity.

After immersing the specimens in the three types of kombucha, the changes in the surface hardness of the composite resin were assessed using a Vickers microhardness tester. The results showed a significant decrease in the surface Vickers microhardness of the composite resin in all groups except for the water control. The difference in the Vickers microhardness before and after immersion tended to decrease as the immersion time increased, indicating that prolonged exposure to the beverage further affected the surface Vickers microhardness of the composite resin. Notably, the surface Vickers hardness decreased the most when I’m alive, with the lowest pH.

In a study by Kim et al.17), the composite resin showed the greatest change in Vickers microhardness with Coca-Cola, the beverage with the lowest pH (2.34±0.08), resulting in the highest surface Vickers microhardness difference (–11.48±1.45 ΔVHN, p<0.05). Lee et al.16) found that when resin specimens were immersed in Morning Care (pH 3.49) for 30 minutes, the hardness decreased the most, with a reduction of 100.49±9.66 ΔVHN. They also reported that higher calcium concentrations led to higher surface-hardness values over time. Therefore, the results of this study are consistent with those of previous studies, demonstrating that a low pH affects the surface of the composite resin.

The difference in surface Vickers microhardness before and after immersion between I’m alive and I’m alive with 3% calcium lactate was –4.53 ΔVHN. This result is consistent with that for Kim et al.’s study17), which showed that beverages with added calcium had better degradation- prevention effects than those without calcium. SEM was used to examine the changes in the surface structure of the specimens immersed in the three types of kombucha. The results showed that specimens treated with mineral water (the negative control group) exhibited almost no change in surface texture compared to the pre-immersion specimens, maintaining an overall smooth appearance. In contrast, the specimens treated with carbonated water and the three experimental kombucha groups displayed some variations; however, rough surfaces with exposed composite resin particles were observed in certain areas. However, specimens treated with I’m alive +3% calcium lactate showed a significant reduction in rough areas compared to those treated with I’m alive alone. This result is similar to Kim et al.22), in which composite resins treated with acidic fluoride showed more prominent fillers and air bubbles. Kim et al.17) studied composite resins exposed to fermented dairy products, and a mixture of fermented dairy products containing 3% calcium lactate exhibited rough surfaces. In contrast, composite resins exposed to fermented dairy products with 2% NaF or 3% calcium lactate showed smoother surfaces, which is consistent with findings confirming the effectiveness of remineralizing agents such as calcium and fluoride.

3. Limitations

This study had limitations, as it did not account for the composition of the oral environment or its effects on saliva. Considering the buffering action of saliva and the remineralization effect of minerals such as enamel and calcium, there may be differences between the actual impact of the low-pH components of kombucha on the surface of the composite resin and the measured values.

4. Suggestion

Degradation and rough surfaces of composite resins can increase the deposition of dental biofilms, which may elevate the risk of secondary caries and impact the retention and lifespan of restorative materials. To prevent degradation, consuming kombucha with calcium-rich foods, such as dairy products, almonds, or green vegetables is advisable. This approach can help mitigate degradation while allowing for the effective kombucha consumption. Additionally, using a straw to avoid direct contact with teeth or rinsing the mouth with water after drinking kombucha can help neutralize oral pH. Furthermore, kombucha is often perceived as a health beverage rather than an acidic drink by consumers due to its branding as “tea” or “fermented tea.” Therefore, oral health education is necessary to enhance awareness of the acidic nature of kombucha and inform degradation prevention and management strategies. Oral health professionals should provide this education to ensure effective public understanding and practice.

5. Conclusion

This study confirmed that the three types of kombucha used in the experiment have a pH below 4.0, indicating a high risk of degradation. In addition, increasing the immersion time led to a reduction in the surface hardness of the composite resin. The addition of calcium to kombucha effectively reduced the acidity of the beverage, demonstrating an inhibitory effect on the degradation of the composite resin. Observations of the surface structural changes in the composite resin specimens after kombucha immersion using SEM revealed exposed composite resin particles and rough surfaces in all experimental groups. These results suggest that kombucha influences the surface degradation of composite resins.

Acknowledgements

None.

Notes

Conflict of interest

No potential conflict of interest relevant to this article was reported.

Ethical approval

This article does not require for IRB screening because human origin is not used.

Authors contributions

Conceptualization: Sun-Young Park and Do-Seon Lim. Date acquisition: Ye-Won Song, Ye-Eun Kim, Hye-Won Lee, Jung-Yeon Jae, Hyeon-Ji Shim, Hee-Jung Lim, and Im-Hee Jung. Formal analysis: Ye-Won Song, Ye-Eun Kim, Hye-Won Lee, Jung-Yeon Jae, Hyeon-Ji Shim, Hee-Jung Lim, and Im-Hee Jung. Supervision: Do-Seon Lim. Writing-original draft: Do-Seon Lim. Writing-review & editing: Sun-Young Park and Do-Seon Lim.

Funding

None.

Data availability

The supporting data of this study are available from the corresponding author upon reasonable request.

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